A Survey of 259 Families Was Made to Determine Their Vacation Habits
Abstract
Purpose
This newspaper aims to focus on how reading for pleasance is transmitted within the family. Using data taken from the Program for International Student Assessment test of 2009, which dealt in depth with the reading proficiency of students, the authors show that children of parents who read for pleasance are better readers. Within the extensive research and published results on reading functioning, the authors focused on the transmission of parents' reading attitudes to their children.
Design/methodology/approach
In this study, the authors take opted for an approach of "deviation in differences", applied to a population that represents all 15-year-olds from five countries (Frg, Denmark, Republic of hungary, Italy and Portugal). To support this study, the authors chose as a response variable the divergence between reading operation and maths performance of each student, taking into business relationship five plausible values for each student. The authors accept several explanatory variables, amid them what nosotros telephone call the "handling", which is the parents' enthusiasm for reading.
Findings
The calculated estimations conspicuously bespeak that there is a positive consequence for four out of the five countries analysed, ranging from 4 points for Italia to 6.5 points for Germany and Portugal. As for the significance of the effect, with the exception of Hungary, the outcome is reliable and robust. It should also exist noted that the variable that indicates the being of a reading habit by children (daily reading for pleasure) is seen as a factor that positively affects the difference betwixt competence in reading and mathematics in four out of the v countries analysed.
Originality value
The results show positive effects on children whose parents read for pleasure, and this fact should be used to further encourage parents to promote their ain reading time for pleasure. In view of the already quantified trend in international reports that adults are reading less, it seems crucial to involve educational authorities in reversing this phenomenon, knowing the impact that adult reading habits have on the reading competence of immature people.
Keywords
- PISA
- Parental interest
- Intergenerational manual
- Reading attitude
- Reading for pleasure
Citation
Clavel, J.G. and Mediavilla, M. (2020), "The intergenerational outcome of parental enthusiasm for reading", Applied Economic Analysis, Vol. 28 No. 84, pp. 239-259. https://doi.org/x.1108/AEA-12-2019-0050
Publisher
:Emerald Publishing Limited
Copyright © 2020, Jose G. Clavel and Mauro Mediavilla.
License
Published in Applied Economic Analysis. Published past Emerald Publishing Express. This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC By four.0) licence. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and not-commercial purposes), field of study to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this licence may be seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode
ane. Introduction
Following the 1966 Coleman's study, there is an ongoing debate on the didactics production part, and consequently, whether improving schools' financial resources volition improve students' achievement. The results have failed to provide robust results, from the statistical betoken of view, of the impact of school resources on educational outcomes. To summarise the situation on 2 paradigmatic papers, meet Krueger (1999) on the team of those who found positive furnishings, versus Hanushek (1986) who plant negligible or even negative effects. The piece of work now presented is some other step on this search for a better specification of the educational activity production function but, instead of searching in the field of the school inputs, nosotros await within the out-of-school factors, specifically the family inputs that influence reading outcomes.
Those family inputs that touch on the reading production function form what is known in the literature every bit the dwelling house literacy environment (HLE), amassed on active HLE (i.e. parents educational activity to acquire their children) and passive HLE (i.east. provision of reading resource, or the very topic analysed in this paper: parents attitudes toward reading). This approach is a specific aspect of the intergenerational transmission (Todd and Wolpin, 2007) of non-cognitive skills (Cunha et al., 2010) . As noted by Coulon et al. (2011), in that location is a certain intergenerational transmission from parents to children; the evidence shows that parents with better numberacy and reading skills take children who show ameliorate results in both cognitive and non-cognitive skills.
While other studies take already linked parental attitudes with reading functioning [1], our report is unique for four reasons. First of all, virtually studies on reading expanse are based on local experiment. See the 1 in the locality of Haringey, a depressed area outside London (Tizard et al., 1982), that showed that whatever small parental collaboration has a positive impact on a child's reading power. Or the written report by Flouri and Buchanan (2004) that shown that the involvement of parents in the reading of their children has more influence on immature people than other family variables such every bit social form, family size or educational level of parents, or Chen (2008), in Taiwan, who shows that in that location are family factors that contribute to a beloved of reading, and that, although schoolhouse-related factors are not shown to be relevant, a instructor's own enthusiasm tin have positive consequences. Although these findings were interesting, information technology is difficult to brand any inference even at land level. Our study, based on the data provided by Programme for International Student Cess (PISA) allows for such implications.
Using data from the 2009 edition of the PISA, we show that not only do parents who enjoy reading have children who read better, but that children read amend precisely because their parents are enthusiastic readers. The need of the parents' questionnaire on reading habits conditioned our information set: although there are more recent PISA rounds, only in 2009, the reading was assessed in item, including an optional parent context questionnaire. Unfortunately, only a few countries completed this boosted source of data on family reading habits: Germany, Denmark, Hungary, Italy and Portugal inside Europe, the countries we have analysed.
The second characteristic that makes our study unique is the econometric strategy used to find causality. Most of the results derived from international surveys are based on correlation between several variables and performance in reading and other competences. For example, the work of Akbasli et al. (2016) analyses the effects of reading comprehension on competencies in science and mathematics. From the correlation of data from several countries included in the PISA exam, they find that students who achieve good results in reading comprehension likewise do so in mathematics and science.
Instead of those descriptive studies (see some of them in Tabular array A1 in the Appendix), our piece of work is related with those that analyse the effectiveness of the parents' involvement in their children'southward reading activity. We are non just measuring correlations that confirm that parents' attitudes towards reading and parental expectations contribute to the development of children positive attitudes towards literacy (Baker and Scher, 2002 or Yeo et al., 2014). We have measured causality, the effect that parents' role models play on kid's preference germination through fake behaviours, perchance the only process in one case the children go adolescents.
The age of the students constitutes the third relevant attribute of our paper. It is well known that the relationships between parent and children change with the historic period. At that place is an evolution that surely has an effect on the reading and the validity of the models. For example, the work of Hemmerechts et al. (2017) analyses the human relationship between activities related to reading and reading skills of children, especially taking into business relationship the socioeconomic condition of the family. Their study demonstrated the relevance of parents' intervention in their children'due south reading, when they are still in early on childhood education only does this result remain years later? Or the report past Chiu et al. (2015) in Taiwan, analysing the influences of the cultural capital of the families on the motivation to read: they found a significant indirect effect on the reading behaviours of primary school students. Consider also the results of a study on six-year-onetime children by Wiescholek et al. (2017) that suggested that both active and passive HLE have an contained significant impact on children reading attitudes.
In contrast to these, our study uses a population that represents all 15-year-old students from diverse countries, and our results are applicative to those educational systems. Adolescence is not an age for an agile influence on the educatee by the parents. Just unexpectedly, it seems that it is the fourth dimension for a passive influence of the reading enthusiasm observed at dwelling.
The terminal attribute of this paper that made it dissimilar from others is the non-cerebral approach we have adopted in both sides of the equation. Obviously, the enthusiasm of the parents on reading is an attitude, a non-cognitive skill, not easily measurable. Near of the occasions, the time the parents say that they are reading is used as proxy. In our opinion, it is a rough proxy, not simply considering is self-defied but also considering the time someone uses for reading is more correlated with how busy he/she is and his/her spare time. To face this problem, we decided to create our own indicator that will exist discussed in due time later on.
What we desire to betoken out now is the other not-so-axiomatic not-cognitive variable, our dependent variable. Indirectly, the diff and diff model use produces the measure out of an interesting reading competency. Traditional papers just uses the evidently plausible values provided past the Arrangement for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), not because that there are several skills, ranging from agreement explicitly stated information in a literary text or document to understanding poetry.
In our paper, having considered the difference in operation between a reading and math equally our dependent variable, nosotros are dealing with a proxy of the reading for pleasance or gratuitous reading: the part of your reading competence that is "superfluous", that the student has adult "besides" the basic skill she needs to read, for example, the problem presented on a maths exam. And then, our newspaper is also related to those who measure attitude that is assumed to be vitally important because they are likely to influence students' reading behaviour and facilitate the development of reading competencies (Mol and Bus, 2011).
This newspaper is organised every bit follows: Department two presents what is currently known about the influence of reading on pedagogy and about the relationship between parents' behaviour and their children's reading, by showing several social experiments that previously looked for a causal relationship analogous to the one we are interested in; Section 3 explains the methodology: though the PISA 2009 database is comprehensive, two variables in our study were generated from primary information, and analysed using "Differences in Differences" model; Department 4 shows the results of the written report; finally Section 5 contents some conclusions and recommendations.
2. Literature review
Reading is an essential tool for the intellectual development of a person. It is the most common way into the civilisation of a country. Moreover, cerebral skills are a positively related with salaries, employment prospects and long-term economical growth (Hanushek and Woessmann, 2008). Specifically, Currie and Thomas (2001) found that scores on a reading test taken at early on ages are positively correlated with their later earnings. Only, knowing how to read is not enough: the reader needs to develop an interest in the written word and practise reading skills regularly. There are several factors that make someone who can read a good reader. One of them is the example fix by parents in the home.
Previous paper on the effect of HLE in reading have focus on the parents acting every bit reading teachers (references) or the effect of the provision of reading resources. For case, in PISA 2009, it was determined that the average reading proficiency score of students from households that had more than than 200 books was 25% higher than the average reading proficiency of students from homes where they had almost no books (OECD, 2010).
Our paper is related with those studies that analyse the issue of the parental collaboration. Analysing some of the published findings, information technology is clear that the interest of parents in educational performance takes many forms. There are two very comprehensive reviews by Klemencic et al. (2014) and by Castro et al. (2015), who mention aspects of parental involvement ranging from back up for certain programmes within the eye, participation in extracurricular activities or attending meetings with the board of directors. Specifically on the outcome of family literacy intervention on children reading conquering is the meta-analytic review (including combined results for sixteen intervention studies) is the work of Sénéchal and Young (2008) that review the scientific literature on parent involvement in the conquering of reading from Form 3 to kindergarten.
The parental collaboration we nowadays as treatment is not to provide them with reading materials such as books neither helping to teach children how to read. Those interventions, comparing groups of similar characteristics that but differ in some of the treatment methods, are ideal for proving causality. Some of these interventions are "The Literacy 60 minutes" (Machin and McNally, 2008); Ritchie et al. (2015), based on data from the TEDS [ii] study; Sullivan and Brownish (2015), based on the data of BCS70 [three] or Cardoso et al. (2008) who analyse whether parents' preferences regarding the use of their fourth dimension influence how adolescents utilise their time.
The parental collaboration we nowadays every bit treatment is to help by modelling reading themselves. The modelling of reading by parents does non expressly teach children how to read, but rather serves to communicate a preference. When modelling reading, parents are, in effect, modelling enjoyment, enthusiasm or interest in reading. Clark and Rumbold (2006) stress the importance of parents modelling reading to encourage young people to read for pleasures. More specifically, parents who believe that reading is a source of amusement take children with more positive views about reading than parents who just emphasise the skills aspect of reading (Sonnenschein and Munsterman, 2002).
We believe that the enthusiasm develops what nosotros telephone call reading for pleasure, which in this paper is used interchangeably with reading gratuitously also ofttimes referred to by a plethora of names like contained reading, voluntary reading, leisure reading, recreational reading. See the monograph "Reading for pleasure: A research overview" by Clark and Rumbold for wider information. Just every bit a token of its relevance, research from the OECD showed that reading enjoyment is more than important for children's educational success than their family's socio-economic condition (OECD, 2002). Reading for pleasure could, therefore, be i of import way to combat social exclusion and raise educational standards, and, as we will prove, could be promoted with a little effort of the parents.
iii. Methodology
As nosotros have said before, the data of this study come up from the PISA. Every 3 years, this plan, evaluates the competences of fifteen-twelvemonth-olds in three main subjects (reading, mathematics and scientific discipline). In each exam, one of the three main subjects is evaluated in more detail. The reading competence was analysed in 2009 for the second fourth dimension. In addition, the OECD offers optional questionnaire. In 2009, one of these optional questionnaires was the Parent Questionnaire that gave a complementary view of the reading surround a xv-twelvemonth-one-time pupil has at home. Our data comes from this study.
In this section, we will nowadays in detail the data and the econometric technique chosen, a variation of the difference in differences (DiD) model to determine coincidental relationships and not just correlations betwixt treatment and results.
3.1 Tools used for analysis
At that place are several econometric strategies to try to isolate the effects of a treatment that, in this case, would exist the parents' enthusiasm for reading. In this study, we have chosen the technique of "DiD" by competences, following a route already explored by Cordero and Pedraja (2019) to measure the effect on students' financial knowledge from PISA information [4].
The "DiD" method is primarily designed for console data, when one grouping is exposed to one handling and some other is not. To give a simple example, in the case of a reinforcement programme for students with learning difficulties, the average operation of students without such difficulties and that of students with difficulties is calculated before the programme is started. One time the programme has been completed, this departure is recalculated. The variation in the deviation is the impact of the policy. However, our situation is non the aforementioned: we do non have two moments in time to compare, and our 2009 PISA data is not console information. And so, in line with the original idea of Jürges et al. (2005), nosotros apply a variation of the "DiD" using the results of students in two competences, reading comprehension and mathematics, to identify the upshot of parents' enthusiasm for reading. More than specifically, the following models can be used to explain the results in mathematics and reading:
where Mathi is the event of the student's maths proficiency i in PISA 2009, Read i is the student's proficiency in reading comprehension, μi are the individual characteristics of the subject field i, Xi is a matrix that contains the control variables of the model (immigrant, repetition, female, […]), Ti is the treatment variable, (parents' enthusiasm for reading) and finally, єi Chiliad and єi R are the random disturbances of each model, which we will assume see the usual assumptions in these cases.From these models, if, instead of studying the performance separately in each competence, we analyse the variable difference between competences (which is precisely what nosotros accept washed to explain diffi,j R−M ), the resulting model is as follows:
Where (δR – δG ) = δDIF represents the event of the treatment on the difference in functioning between reading and mathematics. With this transformation, the specific characteristics of the subjects, the not-observable stable part µ, accept disappeared from the model. On a simplistic level, nosotros could consider that each pupil is a command for herself (Cordero and Pedraja, 2019).With this transformation, if the δDIF coefficient is significantly unlike from cypher, and positive, in one case the furnishings of the control variables have been discounted, we can affirm that the handling "parents' enthusiasm for reading" has a positive effect on reading, which surpasses the upshot information technology has on mathematics. That is to say, the parents' enthusiasm for reading causes an improvement in the reading competence of children.
For this strategy of identification of the effect of the treatment to exist credible, it has to see ii conditions that, in our example, nosotros can assume are given. The starting time status is that the parents' enthusiasm for reading influences the children's reading skills more the maths skills. In this case, we supported this assumption on the results of the correlation for each country [v]. Finally, nosotros considered no spillover effects and identical relative preferences between reading and math. In this case, we cannot demonstrate due the lack of information almost information technology in the database and constitutes a limitation of the work.
Once the estimation strategy is decided, i.e. the "DiD" model, the last step of the process is to implement the model and estimate the coefficients to find out if the parents' enthusiasm for reading influences the reading habits of their children.
Every bit already mentioned, PISA data has a circuitous structure that requires specific calculations to obtain reliable results. More detailed information can be establish in the PISA 2009 Technical Report (OECD, 2012). In this study, we opt for REPEST, the STATA routine developed by Avvisati and Keslair (2014) to analyse the data. REPEST carries out the estimations using the BRR weights proposed by the OECD and is suitable for use with plausible values, such that the boilerplate value of the estimations is obtained and the imputation error is incorporated into the variance of the estimated parameter.
Calculating the difference for each pair of plausible values of the two subjects allows us to maintain the structure of the information and, therefore, makes it possible to use the BRR replicates and the residual of the statistical advantages in the estimation offered by REPEST, when there are plausible values. The results obtained with this method are technically robust and encounter the criteria of the usual OECD studies.
3.ii Information and variables
As already mentioned, the information for this written report come from the PISA 2009 database. Equally our study analyses the effect of parents' reading habits on their children'southward reading, our sample is restricted to those countries for which context questionnaires were completed by the parents. In the European environment, these countries are Germany, Denmark, Republic of hungary, Italy and Portugal, which together provide a sample of 52,711 students, representative of 23 million immature people anile xv.
From the enormous data generated by PISA 2009, we choose a small group of variables, which nosotros group into two types: response variables and explanatory variables. The response variable in this written report is the difference betwixt the reading comprehension performance and the maths operation of each educatee [vi].
3.two.i The response variable.
PISA 2009 indicates both the level of reading competence and the level of maths competence of each student. From this information, information technology seems simple to generate the response variable "difference between reading and mathematics". Nonetheless, PISA'southward mode of presenting the results (see PISA 2013 Technical Report for a complete explanation of the IRT approach) makes it complicated to obtain this response variable direct. Indeed, for PISA, student reading functioning is non a unmarried value, but five, and pupil maths performance is non a unmarried value, merely five. Therefore, there is not one difference in performance for each pupil, merely five differences.
Thus, with our response variable in mind, the difference between functioning in reading comprehension and operation in mathematics is, in fact, the difference between five plausible values of reading and 5 plausible values of mathematics. It is better to maintain this structure: information technology would be a mistake to lose this data by simplifying the variable with an average of the 5 values, as the model would be impoverished. Therefore, to maintain the structure of plausible values, we define our variable as:
pv_readi,j is the plausible value j for reading performance of student i, pv_mathi,j is the plausible value j for mathematics performance of the aforementioned pupil i and diffi,j R−M is each one of the differences between the functioning in reading and mathematics. In this way, nosotros keep in our response variable the essence of PISA performance: plausible values.Having a response variable in the course of five plausible values has a number of methodological advantages. Specifically, it allows the OECD instructions to be followed so that the estimations of the sample errors of the parameters include the interpretation errors, the sampling errors and the measurement errors that the complex construction of the PISA data entails.
Subsequently taking into business relationship these technical aspects, the results in 2009 for the reading and maths skills of the countries studied are significantly different from nil. In all countries, the difference between reading competence and maths competence is relevant. But, it is not an unexpected result: the fact that boys show a better boilerplate performance in mathematics than in reading is typical (and therefore, the negative divergence); the fact that girls read better than boys is also common place (and therefore, the positive deviation).
Nevertheless, the expected result for the response variable "departure betwixt reading functioning and maths performance" tin can help u.s. make up one's mind the extent to which the parents' enthusiasm for reading develops better readers in their children. We do this with the help of a "DiD" model and the following explanatory variables.
The explanatory variables are classified into command variables and the treatment variable. Nosotros analyse whether the parents' enthusiasm for reading has an impact on the reading of the children. That is, if those children who receive the "treatment" of parents who are readers read ameliorate than their peers who exercise not receive that "treatment", discounting the other characteristics that could have an influence.
3.2.2 The treatment variable.
The handling variable in our written report, "parents' enthusiasm for reading", cannot be measured directly. Similar other variables, such every bit quality or elegance, these are latent variables which one attempts to measure from various indicators that are observable. In the case of parents' enthusiasm for reading, we have 4 indicators in the parents' questionnaire: "When yous are at abode, how much time do you spend reading for your own enjoyment?" (PA05Q01); "Reading is one of my favourite hobbies" (PA06Q01); "I feel happy if I receive a volume as a present" (PA06Q02); "I savor going to a book store or a library" (PA06Q04). We verified that these are in fact 4 related indicators, and that it is reliable to presume that they are reflecting the behaviour of a latent variable. Finally, we estimated for each student the value of that variable not directly observed. For this we employ, equally does the OECD, the theory of response to the detail. Specifically, as our items accept more than 2 categories, we use a generalisation of the Rash model, the generalised fractional credit model (GPCM) proposed by Muraki (1992), which is the nearly advisable in the context of our report because it allows bigotry to vary betwixt items (OECD, 2017, p. 291) to construct a new index. See Appendix for a detailed caption.
From these results, we can conclude that there is internal coherence in the scale found, that the four variables observed manifest an unobserved latent variable and that the model estimated by the GPCM method can be used to generate, a posteriori, a plausible value, an guess of the parents' enthusiasm for reading, based on their characteristics.
The variable thus generated is a calibration that nosotros can standardise, following the usual OECD procedure for its derived variables so that the entire population nether study has a mean equal to zip and a standard deviation equal to one. We have included just the parents who answered at to the lowest degree ii of the observed variables. By country, in one case all the calculations have been made, the distribution of the response variable in our report is presented in the Effigy i.
The largest median is in Germany, and the everyman in Portugal. The smallest interquartile difference occurs in Hungary, where the difference between the first quartile and the median is very narrow. Both in this country and in Italy, at that place are some atypical values, or outliers, seen in the upper office of the distribution. This variable enters in the model recoded: we decided to give value 1 to those students whose parents are in the third quantile of enthusiasm, and 0 to those with parents on the first quantile: we compare both groups for each country.
As a descriptive assay, we compare the hateful difference in reading comprehension between a handling and control group. The positive deviation for the handling grouping in all countries is strong indicator that permits us to intuit a positive full general impact in reading of the parent's pleasure for reading. Moreover, it is a signal of the relevance of the handling variable. This outcome is in line with the results shown by Mullis et al. (2017) with PIRLS. Come across Table 1.
3.two.3 The control variables.
Forth with the treatment, the other explanatory variables are the control variables. The information for these variables comes directly from the context questionnaire filled out past the students and parents. We choose the control variables following the empirical literature on PISA database. Among the variables used for students are their immigrant status, their reading addiction, if they attended pre-primary school, the educational level of their parents or if they repeated a loftier schoolhouse class. Table two shows the variables selected.
In the context questionnaire of the students, young people were asked most the time they spent reading for pleasure when they were at home. The answers immune some gradation in the response according to how much time they spent, but in our study, we recoded information technology and the variable "children reading" is divided into two categories: students who exercise not read 0, and those who read something daily i.
The immigrant variable takes three values:
-
when the student is native (88.81% for all countries);
-
when the student is a second-generation immigrant, i.e. information technology was the parents who emigrated and the children were born in the country (6.53%); and
-
indicates start-generation immigrants, those who accept just arrived in the country (4.65%).
The variable early childhood education includes whether the student, earlier primary school, attended form at ISCED level 0, which represents schooling attended between the ages of 3 and half dozen; in some countries, the parents tin can cull whether to send their children to school at this historic period. For the whole sample, 83.64% attended, but there are differences, ranging from 60.21% in Portugal to 94.50% in Republic of hungary.
The variable "repetition" refers to students who repeated secondary pedagogy for one or more years. We are interested in introducing a control variable to characterise a pupil with learning problems. This variable is closely linked to the educational system of each land and the weather that must exist met for a educatee to not be suspended.
The parental context questionnaire has several measures on their educational level. In our study, for the "parents' teaching" variable, the maximum educational level reached by the mother or the father, using the same categories as the OECD, is 0, if their level of didactics is lower than the ISCED 3; (1), if their level is ISCED4; (ii), if the maximum level is ISCED5; and (3), if they reached ISCED 5 A or half dozen levels.
The variable "language spoken at domicile" indicates whether the language spoken at home coincides 0 or non (1) with the language used in the PISA examination. Information technology is one more than mensurate of the caste of integration of the immigrant and, in the case of reading, we understand that the language in which the family unit communicates at home is relevant.
Finally, we calculated the mean deviation test between the treatment and command group. We could to note some departure on the control variables [7].
4. Results
Estimations made to determine whether the habit of reading by parents could influence the difference in performance betwixt reading comprehension and mathematics of their children indicates that there is clearly a positive event for four out of the five countries analysed (Tabular array 3) [8].
The effect ranges from four points for Italy to 6.5 points in the case of Germany and Portugal. Regarding the significance of the effect, with the exception of Hungary where no effect is proven [nine], all other countries show the issue to exist reliable and robust. Even so, it is remarkable that, after controlling through the methodological approach for multiple unobservable personal characteristics and for a serial of theoretically relevant control variables, such a positive effect remains unchanged. Therefore, we can confirm the existence of an internal factor of families – such as the habit of daily reading – in the results observed in their children. In others words that the effect the parents role model play on child's preferences formation through imitation behaviours is positive to meliorate the reading for pleasure or gratuitous reading.
In reference to the control variables introduced in the model, it should be noted that their chief office is to permit the issue assigned to the treatment variable to be real and as tight as possible, and that in a "DiD" model, such variables should be included in those cases where information technology is considered that they tin exert a differential upshot in both competences (reading comprehension and mathematics). That said, we would like to highlight several interesting results obtained.
First, the variable that indicates that children are readers (daily reading for pleasure) is seen to exist a cistron that positively affects the departure between reading and maths skills in 4 out of the five countries analysed. Autonomously from Germany, the other countries bear witness a positive and very significant effect of between nine and 11 points.
So, children reading would have an private effect, separate from the issue of their parents' reading on the differential observed in PISA. A pupil reader with parent readers would have an amass differential effect of between xiii and 17.5 points, compared to other classmates without this consolidated habit.
Secondly, an expected result was the positive issue of existence female on the reading–maths differential. Empirical literature has ever shown that females have meliorate performance in reading comprehension, and this is also reflected in our estimations.
Thirdly, the immigration variable shows a disparate result depending on the country analysed. In the case of Germany and Hungary, it is not pregnant, while it has a positive effect in Denmark and Portugal, and a negative event in Italy (although, always with low significance). The effect observed is the differential in relation to the reference category, i.due east. students who were built-in in their native state.
Fourthly, the maximum educational level of parents shows an event in three of the countries evaluated, only not in Kingdom of denmark and Hungary. Federal republic of germany and Portugal show a negative touch in the case of parents with education college than tertiary level. By contrast, for Italy, the impact is positive in all categories of the variable. It should exist remembered that the reference category is compulsory or lower secondary-level education. In our study, this low global significance is surprising, considering the importance that parents' level of educational is given equally a synthetic indicator of the social and cultural environment surrounding the student.
Fifthly, the language spoken at dwelling beingness different from that used in the test is only relevant in the case of Italy, and with a negative sign. This event is expected considering knowledge of the vehicular linguistic communication in school is a central chemical element in expected and observed levels of reading competence in the PISA tests. The general absence of touch of this variable indicates that its effect, if information technology exists, is relatively homogeneous for reading and maths skills. Attending early childhood teaching is not meaning.
Finally, we replicate the interpretation using as dependent variable, those formed by culling differences: science–mathematics and reading–science. In the get-go pick, the results indicated a positive bear upon (very similar than the principal interpretation). In the second option, we found non-impact. This outcome is very interesting because it shows a positive impact of the habit of reading by parents on the divergence between reading and scientific discipline in forepart of mathematics [10].
5. Conclusions and educational policy proposals
Based on the results for the five countries analysed, we can highlight 2 main points. First, it has been demonstrated that the reading enthusiasm of the parents helps to better the disposition for gratuitously reading of their children.
2nd, all countries in the sample, except Deutschland, evidence that the reading competence of a young person who has parents at home who like to read is further enhanced if the young person is also fond of reading.
That the children, at some age, practise non obey but imitate, was already known. Our paper shows that it is too econometrically true when talking about reading attitudes: the presence of parents with enthusiasm for reading is a positive influence in the reading attitudes of their children without the need of force them to. The results are especially important because, outset, they might inspire strategies based on something so common equally the parents, and 2nd, the effect on the children could pb to a long-term change of habits for teenagers: once the student finishes his/her studies, he/she will withal keep the reading simply for pleasure.
The question we then ask is this: what could the educational authorities do to promote reading enthusiasm in parents and young people? As the OECD acknowledged in its 2010 written report, changing student attitudes towards reading is even more difficult than ensuring equal access to adept schools and good teachers for all. Only, in view of our results, we would recommend strengthening parental back up. In fact, some educational systems, such as those in the Britain, Ireland or the USA, are introducing legislative changes so that schools involve parents more than in the educational procedure.
Mayhap, rather than forcing parents to participate in school meetings, it would be better to help parents be good office models by implementing educational policies so that they are aware of their role in their children's learning, helping them to aqueduct their desire to be meliorate educators and meliorate parents through the nearly advisable reading strategies. In view of the trend already quantified in international reports of the loss of reading habits in adults, information technology is recommended to involve educational authorities in the activation of policies aimed at increasing reading at home. Mayhap, a reading club for parents in the school and better schedules for libraries could exist two practical procedures promote the reading for pleasure in the parents.
Figures
Opens in a new window.
Figure 1.
Box diagram for the distribution of "parents' enthusiasm for reading" in each country
Notes
ane.
For example, the data from the latest International Study of Progress in Reading Comprehension, PIRLS, leave no uncertainty about the relationship betwixt parents' attitude towards reading and their children'southward educational operation. The average for elementary students whose parents say they "like to read" (which accounts for 32% of the total parents) is 535 points, compared to 488 on boilerplate for children whose parents do not like to read (accounting for 17%) (Mullis et.al., 2017).
2.
TEDS: Twins Early Development Study. This study follows twins born between January 1994 and Dec 1996 in England and Wales.
three.
BCS70: British Cohort Study, a representative sample of British citizens who were born in a certain week of 1970 and who have been interviewed and "measured" periodically, the terminal fourth dimension being in 2012.
4.
The existence of endogeneity between the treatment upshot ("parents' enthusiasm for reading") and the outcome variable (reading performance) constrasted by diferent tests (Hausman, Pindyck and Rubinfeld and Gujarati) forced usa to chose a more than sofisticated technique to grasp the expected causality.
v.
Results are bachelor upon request.
6.
Other differences were possible as science and mathematics or reading and science. We calculated these estimations besides as comparative results (see Department three).
7.
The results are available upon request.
viii.
We gauge the principal model in case of the parent who answered the questionnaire was the mother or father (see in the Appendix Table A5).
9.
It may be due to many causes, which cannot exist covered in this study. Perhaps, the family state of affairs and an educational arrangement that replace parents in their task every bit role models may be two of the reasons.
10.
The results are available upon request.
Tabular array A1
Tabular array A2
Table A3
Tabular array A4
Table A5
Appendix
On the formation of the treatment variable
There are four indicators in the parents' questionnaire: "When you are at home, how much time do you spend reading for your own enjoyment?" (PA05Q01); "Reading is ane of my favourite hobbies" (PA06Q01); "I experience happy if I receive a book as a present" (PA06Q02); "I bask going to a book store or a library" (PA06Q04) of parents' enthusiasm for reading. The first set up is to verify that these are in fact four related indicators. To study the relationship betwixt the four indicators, we use Kendall's Tau (τb) proposed past Kendall in 1945, which is the alternative to Pearson's linear correlation coefficient when it is bodacious that the variables do not follow a normal bivariate distribution, as in this case. Tabular array A2 shows the intensity of the relationship betwixt the four indicators of reader enthusiasm, measured past tau. Equally can be seen, all variables have a sufficiently high correlation to presume that they are measuring like aspects of parental behaviour. That is, information technology makes sense to call up that in that location is an unobserved variable that is partially manifesting itself in the four questions analysed.
Once the indicators have been described and at that place is shown to be a certain relationship betwixt them, we build a scale, an index that represents the latent variable "reader enthusiasm". For this we use, as does the OECD, the theory of response to the item. Specifically, as our items take more than two categories, nosotros utilise a generalisation of the Rash model, the GPCM proposed past Muraki (1992), which is the most advisable in the context of our study because information technology allows discrimination to vary between items (OECD 2017, p. 291). The model expression is:
where P(xj,i | θj,αi,δr) is the probability that a sure private j chooses option r to particular i. This probability depends on the value of the latent variable in that subject (θj), of the discriminant capacity of that item (αi) and of the item location parameter (δr). The estimations are fabricated with the R package ltm (latent trait models under item response theory (IRT)) (Rizopoulos, 2006). Table A3 presents the results. As can be seen, there is the expected progressiveness in the parameters, and the particular that most discriminates is the PA06Q01, corresponding to the statement: "Reading is i of my favourite hobbies".The terminal pace before generating the estimations of the latent variable "reader enthusiasm", based on the newly estimated parameters, it is necessary to verify that the scale formed past the four indicators is reliable, i.due east. that it has an internal consistency within each land. To calculate internal consistency and determine whether the results are comparable between countries, the OECD uses Cronbach'south α. For the countries under study, the value of the coefficient for the "parents' enthusiasm for reading" construct is showed in Table A4.
Addendum
The authors have re-estimated the main model taking into account whether the person answering the questionnaire is the mother or father for each state. In almost countries, the authors institute find a positive outcome in the case of the female parent having the addiction of reading. On the contrary, the consequence is not significant in the example of parents. This situation is reversed only in the case of Portugal. Moreover, in the case of mothers, the sample allowed estimating the issue of the Parent read for the specific case of daughters and sons. This has not been possible in the case of men because of presenting a very limited sample size. At the methodological level, we are left in doubtfulness equally to whether or non the responding parent consults with his or her partner when responding.
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Acknowledgements
An earlier version of this paper was published on the Series Monografías sobre educación, promoted by Fundación Ramón Areces and Fundación Sociedad y Educación. The authors are most grateful to professors Daniel Santín and Ildefonso Méndez for their valuable seminal comments at the outset and ii anonymous referees of this journal at the end of the mode. Finally, this paper has been enriched with many small suggestions from formal and informal meetings in the concluding months. The 2nd author acknowledges financial support given by the Regional Regime of Valencian Community (Conselleria d'Hisenda i Model Econòmic; project HIECPU/2019/2).
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